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The Broken Country

Definition: (phrase) "The country is broken, and only the mountains and rivers remain."



Unicode Ideographic Description Sequence: ⿷匚⿱山河



Formation: 匚 (broken 囗, or enclosure) + 山 ("mountain") + 河 ("river")



Notes:



On Chinese Irredentism



Today's character is inspired by the first line of the following poem, written by the Tang Dynasty poet 杜甫 in 757 A.D.:



国破山河在，城春草木深。

感时花溅泪，恨别鸟惊心。

烽火连三月，家书抵万金。

白头搔更短，浑欲不胜簪。

A non-poetic, prosaic rough translation would be something like this:



The country has been broken, and only the mountains and rivers remain.

It's now spring in the capital, and though the grass and woods are verdant, few walk in the streets.

My heart is so full of sorrow at the fate of the country, that even seeing the flowers brings me to tears.

And I hate, hate this feeling of being separated from my family, that the cry of birds startles me.



The flames of civil war have raged for three months.

A letter from home is worth ten thousand gold pieces.

I have scratched and pulled at my white hair,

Until I am almost bald.

As you've probably figured out, this is a poem written after Changan, the capital of Tang China, was captured by rebels, imprisoning 杜甫 in the process. He was writing both about the breakup of the country ("国") and about his family (“家"). For the Chinese, the two concepts have always been linked as simply the same thing at different scales.



This poem has always remained popular in China since its composition, and it is invoked whenever China is broken apart by foreign conquest or domestic strife. It expresses eloquently the Chinese yearning for reunification.



It is, in other words, the anthem of Chinese Irredentism.



Today's China remains broken and unredeemed. With the recovery of Hong Kong and Macao in the 90's, there was a brief period of hope. But the prospect of reunification with Taiwan, whose division from China remains one of the greatest tragedies of the Cold War, equal with the partition of Germany and Korea, seems to have only receded further into uncertainty. And to add to that sorrow, ethnic strife in Tibet and Xinjiang have only added to the prospect that the country would be further broken rather than healed. It does not seem possible that I will live to see a free, prosperous, united China that would again gladden the hearts of all people of Chinese descent, and all humankind.



Only the mountains and rivers remain the same.



In the West, Chinese Irredentism is usually misunderstood. Some of this comes from a genuine ignorance of what China's goals and ambitions are, in light of its history and tradition. The Chinese people's desire to heal the wounds from a series of Western invasions and slaughters dating back to 1840 is often misconstrued as "expansionism." Others, however, do not wish to see a free, prosperous, strong China that can be an equal of the Western powers. For them, Chinese Irredentism provides an excuse for continuing the injustices of 1840 in the present and into the future.



On Taiwan's Human Rights Abuses in China



One small aspect of this Western misunderstanding (deliberate or unintentional) bears commenting: the unconditional "support" for Taiwan. In the Western media, it is typical to hear reports that decry the inhumane conditions in China's sweat factories and equally typical to hear reports that praise the prosperity and "dynamic democracy" that exists in Taiwan. But few reports link the two phenomena together even though they really are simply two sides of the same coin.



The latest example of this is the death of Sun Danyong, a young Chinese worker who committed suicide after his employer, the Taiwanese electronics contract manufacturer Foxconn, applied both physical and mental "pressure" to him because of suspicion that he was responsible for losing one of Apple's secret iPhone prototypes.



It bears re-emphasizing that Foxconn is a Taiwanese company, not Chinese. Some Western reports mention this fact, but do not explain the significance of this. For most readers, this is presented as simply another “China is a terrible abuser of human rights” story without context.



In reality, most of the manufacturing of electronics in China is done in factories owned and managed by Taiwanese and Hong Kong firms. The factory managers and company executives are almost always from Taiwan and Hong Kong. This is true at Foxconn as well. I understand that the company in fact has a policy (perhaps only implicit) that executives above a certain level must be from Taiwan or be Chinese-Americans of Taiwanese origin (both for security reasons and for reasons of prejudice).



Due to Taiwan's independence from China -- and China's official refusal to recognize this as a matter of law -- Taiwanese businesses enjoy a peculiar position in China. They are not subject to laws that would govern domestic companies -- since they are not, in fact, Chinese companies -- but they are also not in reality subject to laws governing foreign enterprises. Thus, they are subject to virtually no constraints whatsoever in China in terms of what they can do to their Chinese workers.



As a result, these Taiwanese businesses subject their Chinese workers to inhuman conditions which they cannot get away with anywhere else. (The conditions go beyond typical sweatshop abuses, and also include humiliating body searches and other policies that would offend both Chinese and Western ideals of human dignity.)



I would not be surprised if the senior security policy makers at Foxconn are all exclusively non-mainland Chinese. The kind of humiliating searches and other abuses that they put their Chinese workers through would not be tolerated at all in Taiwan itself. Yet, due to the unique position of Taiwan vis-a-vis China, these Taiwanese owners and managers have no qualms about imposing them on Chinese workers.



So why doesn't the Chinese government do something about this? It is one of the great ironies of China that the supposedly all-powerful "authoritarian" Chinese government is in fact quite weak and powerless when it comes to realities on the ground.



Since these Taiwanese businesses bring desperately-needed capital investment to areas of China that are very poor, the local Chinese governments dare not touch them. After all, the businesses have the option of leaving at any time because they are heavily courted by local governments everywhere in China -- and "lax regulation" is as much an incentive as local tax breaks to lure these businesses there (and I won't even mention the role of bribery and corruption where local governments and these businesses jump into bed together). Moreover, it is often literally true that the alternative to having these businesses there is worse: with the businesses there at least the workers are employed and being paid something, in exchange for great human suffering; without the businesses there the workers would be unemployed, with no income, and suffering even more. It's a devil's dilemma for anyone involved.





In fact, leaving is what the Taiwanese firms often do when they actually have to step up to their obligations. (The firms from South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong in China all do the same thing). Last year, during the height of the economic crisis, hundreds, indeed thousands, of Taiwan businessmen simply packed up and locked the doors to their factories, leaving the Chinese workers without pay and demanding justice (and back pay) from their local government.



The local governments, of course, can do nothing: how are you going to go after the businessmen from Taiwan, a separate country which does not even recognize the People's Republic?



In some ways this simply highlights the weakness of the People's Republic's international position. A normal, unbroken country like the United States or Japan would be able to demand that other countries hand over these fleeing businessmen or otherwise punish them, but China can do no such thing to South Korea, Taiwan, or even Hong Kong -- nominally a part of the People's Republic -- to protect its own citizens. The real story of today's China is indeed its utter weakness, not its supposed "rise." It is as though things have not changed one iota from 1840, and the People's Republic is simply the late Manchu court reincarnated.



Indeed, the trouble with manufacturing in China isn't that there are no legal protections for workers, but rather that the legal protections are meaningless. As I have mentioned, one of the biggest (though not the only) obstacles in the way of effective legal protection of workers is the complete lack of jurisdiction and enforcement power by local Chinese governments over owners in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Due to the People's Republic's policy of trying to "engage" Taiwan, Taiwanese businessmen cannot be prosecuted or punished by local Chinese authorities, and they are responsible for a large portion, if not the majority, of the investment and consequent human rights abuses in the Pearl River Delta and other coastal regions of China.



Taiwanese and Hong Kong owners and managers run these electronics factories in China as virtual fiefdoms, and disregard with utter contempt any and all Chinese law. Rumors have surfaced even of Foxconn forcing all of its Chinese employees to be in formal ritualistic mourning for a death in the family of owner 郭台铭, as though employees are merely owned servants or slaves of the family. (See, e.g., this thread.) This is the kind of thing that you wouldn't even have expected of despots in olden times. In Confucian China, no insult to the dignity of an individual man can be greater than the kind of arrogant megalomania shown by this story.



It has often been the case that the Western press emphasizes the independence of Taiwan in certain contexts (such as when praising Taiwan as a “dynamic democracy” to contrast it with China), but sweeps this independence under the rug when it throws unfavorable light on Taiwan (under some misguided attempt to be "pro-Taiwan" and "anti-China"). But this is neither consistent nor honest: a human rights abuse is a human rights abuse, no matter who commits it. And it is wrong to refrain from shining the light on the darkness of the inhumanity of these Taiwanese firms for temporary political expediency.



The fact that a great deal of the wealth of Taiwan has been built on the human rights abuses of Chinese workers by Taiwanese managers and owners who have taken advantage of the People’s Republic’s incoherent Taiwan policy is a great tragedy for all ethnic Chinese populations in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the Diaspora. Indeed, it is a great tragedy for all humankind. Taiwan's prosperity and stability, and indeed its domestic legal protections rest on a foundation of exploitation, misery, and human rights abuses in China.



Taiwanese businessmen treat their mainland workers, who are often literally their cousins (I still have cousins in Taiwan) and people who share the same skin, genes, history, and culture, as a colonial power might treat a colony’s coolies. This casts a dark shadow over the supposed freedoms and democratic principles of Taiwan, and this is a story that the West should expose and criticize.



You will never see the Chinese official media criticize the Taiwanese and Hong Kong businessmen, as doing so would be inconsistent with the PRC’s Taiwan policy. Of course, courting the human rights abusers to prevent formal independence is a loser’s game, but Beijing seems insistent on playing it. But the Western media must step up and reveal the truth of these businessmen, the supposed citizens of a “dynamic democracy” who behave as the worst of the worst in trampling over the human rights of Chinese workers.





(Of course the local governments and the not insignificant number of Chinese who are aware of these issues but do nothing are also to blame. Poverty, apathy, and a lack of a strong sense of nationalism are the greatest obstacles in China's slow, meandering crawl to freedom. A country with a strong sense of nationalism would not have one class of citizens tolerating, indeed, promoting the suffering of another class of their fellow citizens for their own selfish gain. The Chinese local officials and the Chinese middle class who have also benefitted from these abuses have much to answer for.)



The trouble with Chinese manufacturing has its roots not only in Beijing, but also in Taipei and Hong Kong.



We are all one people, and though our country is broken, yet the mountains and rivers remain the same.





[Note (8/24/09): Just to be perfectly clear, irredentism does not mean support for the use of violence or a "military solution" for reunification. What could it possibly mean to say that we are "one people" if any disagreement must be resolved only by the use of force? For brother to take up arm against brother it must be a last resort when all other hopes have died, and only if foreign intervention and invasion are implicated. I oppose the use of military force for independence, for unification, and any form of foreign intervention. Independence or reunification must occur primarily through peaceful means.]

On Chinese Irredentism

Today's character is inspired by the first line of the following poem, written by the Tang Dynasty poet 杜甫 in 757 A.D.:



国破山河在，城春草木深。

感时花溅泪，恨别鸟惊心。

烽火连三月，家书抵万金。

白头搔更短，浑欲不胜簪。

A non-poetic, prosaic rough translation would be something like this:



The country has been broken, and only the mountains and rivers remain.

It's now spring in the capital, and though the grass and woods are verdant, few walk in the streets.

My heart is so full of sorrow at the fate of the country, that even seeing the flowers brings me to tears.

And I hate, hate this feeling of being separated from my family, that the cry of birds startles me.



The flames of civil war have raged for three months.

A letter from home is worth ten thousand gold pieces.

I have scratched and pulled at my white hair,

Until I am almost bald.

As you've probably figured out, this is a poem written after Changan, the capital of Tang China, was captured by rebels, imprisoning 杜甫 in the process. He was writing both about the breakup of the country ("国") and about his family (“家"). For the Chinese, the two concepts have always been linked as simply the same thing at different scales.



This poem has always remained popular in China since its composition, and it is invoked whenever China is broken apart by foreign conquest or domestic strife. It expresses eloquently the Chinese yearning for reunification.



It is, in other words, the anthem of Chinese Irredentism.



Today's China remains broken and unredeemed. With the recovery of Hong Kong and Macao in the 90's, there was a brief period of hope. But the prospect of reunification with Taiwan, whose division from China remains one of the greatest tragedies of the Cold War, equal with the partition of Germany and Korea, seems to have only receded further into uncertainty. And to add to that sorrow, ethnic strife in Tibet and Xinjiang have only added to the prospect that the country would be further broken rather than healed. It does not seem possible that I will live to see a free, prosperous, united China that would again gladden the hearts of all people of Chinese descent, and all humankind.



Only the mountains and rivers remain the same.



In the West, Chinese Irredentism is usually misunderstood. Some of this comes from a genuine ignorance of what China's goals and ambitions are, in light of its history and tradition. The Chinese people's desire to heal the wounds from a series of Western invasions and slaughters dating back to 1840 is often misconstrued as "expansionism." Others, however, do not wish to see a free, prosperous, strong China that can be an equal of the Western powers. For them, Chinese Irredentism provides an excuse for continuing the injustices of 1840 in the present and into the future.

The smoke house

The smoke house is essential for the preservation and long term storage of hams, shoulders, bacon sides, and pork bellies. Salt is rubbed thoroughly into each piece of meat and all surfaces are covered. Some formulas included lots of black pepper. The meat was hung on racks and hooks in the smokehouse; and later smoked. Fragrant hardwood, such as hickoryHickory

Trees in the genus Carya are commonly known as Hickory. The genus includes 17?19 species of deciduous trees with pinnately compound leaf and large nut ....

, beechBeech

Beech is a genus of ten species of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to temperate Europe and North America.The leaf of beech trees are entire or sparsely toothed, from 5–15 cm long and 4–10 cm broad....

, or cherryCherry

The word cherry refers to a fleshy fruit that contains a single stony seed. The cherry belongs to the family Rosaceae, genus Prunus, along with almonds, peaches, plums, apricots and bird cherry ....

is allowed to smolder slowly in a pit below the hanging meat. This gives added flavor and color to the meat as well as serving to dry cure the pork.

Butchering the carcass

Very sharp knives and a cleaverCleaver

The word cleaver has a number of uses:*Cleaver is a large form of knife.*Ar?te, in descriptive geology, is a ridge of rock that separates a unified flow of glacial ice from its uphill side into two glaciers flanking, and flowing parallel to, the ridge....

are required for butchering. Butchering was a trade passed from father to son. The carcass was cut into hamHam

Ham is the thigh and rump of pork, cut from the haunch of a pig or boar. Although it may be cooked and served fresh, most ham is Curing in some fashion....

s, shoulders, baconBacon

Bacon is a cut of meat taken from the sides, belly, or back of a pig, then Curing , Smoking , or both. Meat from other animals, such as beef, Lamb and mutton, chicken, goat, or turkey , may also be cut, cured, or otherwise prepared to resemble bacon....

sides, pork bellysPork belly

File:Schweinebauch-2.jpgPork belly is the meat derived from the belly of a pig. In the American cuisine, bacon is made from pork bellies.In other parts of the world, bacon is more often made from back and side cuts, and bacon made from bellies is referred to as "streaky" or "American style"....

, ham hocks, loins, pork chops, and other cuts of lesser importance.



The lardLard

Lard is Domestic pig fat in both its Rendering and unrendered forms. Lard was commonly used in many cuisines as a cooking fat or shortening, or as a Spread similar to butter....

is rendered, and the chitlins stripped. Lard is made by heating fragments of fat in a large iron pot over a wood fire until it is reduced to simmering grease which congeals when cooled. Lard is then stored in five-gallon lard tins with tin covers.



The intestines are then stripped by drawing them through a clenched fist. The intestines are washed, cut into short pieces, and fried to make chitlins.



The "pièce de résistancePièce de résistance

Pi?ce de r?sistance is a French language term , translated into English language literally as "piece of resistance", referring to the best part or feature of something , a showpiece, or highlight....

" is the pork loin which is often eaten the first night. For days after fresh sageCommon sage

Salvia officinalis is a small perennial evergreen subshrub, with woody stems, grayish leaves, and blue to purplish flowers. It is native to the Mediterranean region and commonly grown as a kitchen and medicinal herb or as an ornamental garden plant....

-flavored sausageSausage

A sausage is a prepared food, usually made from ground meat, animal fat, salt, and spices , typically packed in a casing . Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique....

graces the breakfast table.

Slopping the Hogs

Historically, these farms fed hogs grain, fruit and vegetables that are not fit for sale or family use. Overage produce from the farmer’s market and table and restaurant scraps were often diet elements as well. This practice of 'swill feeding' (feeding table scraps) is considered a disease risk today and is banned in many countries. Hogs were also fed “slops” made from middlings or corn meal stirred with milk and water.



Historically, hogs were also allowed to forage in gardens and orchards after the harvest was over. Such foraging can cause erosion and runoff, but the small scale of these operations allowed this to occur.





Hog killing time

Historically, hog killing was done on cold days. One method of hog killing is to cut their throats and let them bleed to death. Alternatively, the hog may have been shot first and then the throat cut.



After killing, the animals were scalded and their skin scraped bare with sharp knives. They were then eviscerated (gutted) and strung up on an A-frame scaffold by inserting a strong sharp stick through the tendonTendon

A tendon is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension . Tendons are similar to ligaments except that ligaments join one bone to another....

s of their rear legs. The carcasses were allowed to chill overnight, ready for butcherButcher

A butcher is someone who prepares various meats and other related goods for sale. Many butchers sell their goods in specialized stores, although in the Western world today most meat is sold through supermarkets....

ing the following day.

The hog pen

Farming pigs outdoors poses a number of problems but the small scale of family farming made it possible to manage these problems. In particular, hogs suffer 'heat stress' in high temperatures and have no sweatSweating

Perspiration is the production of a fluid, consisting primarily of water as well as various dissolved solids , that is excreted by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals....

glands to naturally cool themselves. To cool themselves hogs require access to water or a 'wallow', which is an area of mud. Without access to water or mud, pigs are forced to wallow in their own excrement. Normally, pigs avoid their own excrement, unlike other farm animals, pigs do not defacate just anywhere in their pen - they use one corner of it for their 'bathroom'. Ideally a cement wallow which contains water cools the pig much better, although mud serves to protect pink pigs from sunburn and heat stress, although more pigmented varieties were used on the family farm.. Alternatively, shade may be provided for the animals.



Many family farm hog pens were improvised enclosures made of any material that is handy and free. The size of the pen is often kept small to conserve building material and effort.

Family farm hog pen

The family hog pen was a small-scale system of pig farming which is vastly different from the modern American hog farmIntensive pig farming

Intensive piggeries are a type of factory farm specialized for the raising of domestic pigs up to slaughter weight. In this system of pig production, grower pigs are housed indoors in group-housing or straw-lined sheds, whilst pregnant sows are confined in sow stalls and give birth in farrowing crates....

. Modern intensive hog farms in the United States have an average of about 2,000 hogs, and large farms raise tens of thousands of hogs. Hog pens were found on family farmFamily farm

A family farm is a farm owned and operated by a family, and passed down from generation to generation. It is the basic unit of the mostly agricultural Economic system of much of human history and continues to be so in Developing country....

s of the early 1900’s, although backyard pig farming may still occur. In this article the words “hogs” and “pigsPIGS

PIGS is a four letter acronym that can stand for:* PIGS : Phosphatidylinositol glycan anchor biosynthesis, class S, a human gene.* PIGS : Portugal, Italy, Greece and Spain, an informal grouping of sluggish economies....

” are used interchangeably.



Family hog pens enclosed just a few hogs to provide year-round meat for the table. Prior to refrigeration, some family farms depended on pigs as a primary source of meat and shortening (lardLard

Lard is Domestic pig fat in both its Rendering and unrendered forms. Lard was commonly used in many cuisines as a cooking fat or shortening, or as a Spread similar to butter....

) for year-round food. Farms which had tenant families might have several hog pens.

Hazard identification in swine slaughter with respect to foodborne bacteria

References and further reading may be available for this article. To view references and further reading you must purchase this article.

Elisabeth Borcha, , Truls Nesbakkenb and Hardy Christensenc
a Swedish Meat Research Institute P.O. Box 504, S-244 24, Kävlinge, Sweden

b Department of Research and Development, Norwegian Meat Cooperative P.O. Box 60, Refstad, 0513, Oslo, Norway



c Danish Meat Research Institute, P.O. Box 57, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark





Available online 26 March 1999.



Abstract

Swine slaughter is an open process with many opportunities for the contamination of the pork carcass with potentially pathogenic bacteria; however, it does not contain any point where hazards are completely eliminated. Data on the prevalence of various pathogenic bacteria (Aeromonas hydrophila, Campylobacter coli/jejuni, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus and Yersinia enterocolitica) in pigs, their growth and survival characteristics and ability to become established on the slaughter line are presented. The presentation covers the processing steps from lairage to chilling and is based on swine slaughter practices in Denmark, Norway and Sweden.



The major contamination points during swine slaughter are pig-related, such as faecal and pharyngeal, and environmental. HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) and GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice) in swine slaughter must be focused on limiting this spread. The pathogenic bacteria show differences in their general mechanism of distribution. The major contamination source of Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp. and Y. enterocolitica is the pig, and the contamination of carcasses with these bacteria may be limited, provided that only strict slaughtering procedures are used. Other organisms such as Aeromonas spp., L. money togenes/Listeria spp. and S. aureus can be endemic in the processing environment. Since endemic bacteria can be controlled by proper cleaning and disinfection, these organisms are useful as indicators for the success of GMP rules. The following affiliation to CPs or CCPs made for specific steps during slaughter and dressing may serve as a guidance: (i) lairage (CP), (ii), killing (CP), (iii) scalding (CP), (iv) dehairing (CP), (v) singeing/flaming (CP), (vi) polishing (CP), (vii) circumanal incision and removal of the intestines (CCP), (viii) excision of the tongue, pharynx, and in particular the tonsils (CCP), (ix) splitting (CP), (x) post mortem inspection procedures (CCP) and (xi) deboning of the head (CCP).



Author Keywords: HACCP; GMP; Swine slaughter; Hazard identification; Aeromonas hydrophiler; Campylobacter coli/jejuni; Escherichia coir; Listeria monocytogenes; Salmonella spp.; Staphylococcus aureus; Yersinia enterocolitica



Abbreviations: CP, control point; CCP, critical control point

SUMMARY

Swine, both miniature and domestic farm breeds, will continue to be used in research and teaching in the foreseeable future. Biomedical models have been well described (Stanton and Mersmann, 1986; Swindle, 1992; Tumbleson, 1986) and overviews of methods of anesthesia, analgesia, and handling appropriate for research institutions are available (Riebold and Thurmon, 1986; Smith et al., in press; Swindle et al., 1988). The differences between miniature pigs and domestic farm breeds, as well as the differences among breeds within the same category, must be taken into account when designing scientific protocols and management plans.



This manuscript is meant to provide general guidelines for multi-species research institutions that may only occasionally use swine. Readers are advised to consult the in-depth references provided for specific details.

REFERENCES



Bloor, C. M., F. C. White, and D. M. Roth. 1992. The pig as a model of myocardial ischemia and gradual coronary artery occlusion. Pp. 163-175 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Cameron, D. E., K. H. Tam, W. Cheng, and M. Braxton. 1992. Studies in the physiology of cardiopulmonary bypass using a swine model. Pp. 185-196 in Swine as Models of Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Cohen, I. T., S. O. Nelson, and M. P. Hirsh. 1992. The role of the Hanford minipig as an animal model in pediatric surgery and neonatal intensive care. Pp. 57-63 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Consortium for Developing a Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching. 1988. Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching. Champaign, Illinois: Association Headquarters (Available at a cost of $5.00 each from Association Headquarters, 309 West Clark Street, Champaign, IL 61820. Tel: 1-217-356-3182).



Feletou, M., and B. Teisseire. 1992. Vascular pharmacology of the micropig: Importance of the endothelium. Pp. 74-95 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Fisher, T. F. 1993. Miniature swine in biomedical research: Applications and husbandry considerations. Lab Animal 22(5):47-50.



Flye, M.W. 1992. Orthotopic liver transplantation in outbred and partially inbred swine. Pp. 44-56 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Gal, D., and J. M. Isner. 1992. Atherosclerotic Yucatan microswine as a model for novel cardiovascular interventions and imaging. Pp. 118-140 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Gillette, P. C., M. M. Swindle, R. P. Thompson, and C. L. Case. 1991. Transvenous cryoablation of the bundle of His. PACE 14(4) Pt1:504-510.

Hall, T. S., R. S. Stuart, W. A. Baumgarten, A. M. Borkon, M. M. Swindle, E. Galloway, and B. A. Reitz. 1986. Use of swine in heart transplantation research. Pp. 373-76 in Swine in Biomedical Research, M. E. Tumbleson, ed. New York: Plenum Press.



Hannon, J. P. 1992. Hemorrhage and hemorrhagic shock in swine. A review. Pp. 197-245 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Hendrick, D. A., A. C. Smith, J. M. Kratz, F. A. Crawford, and F. G Spinale. 1990. The pig as a model of tachycardia and dilated cardiomyopathy. Lab Anim. Sci. 40(5):495-501.



Hoban, L. D., J. A. Paschall, J. Echsktein, V. Nadkarni, R. L. Che-Hung, T. J. Williams, D. Rensch, J. J. Nevola, and J. A. Carcillo. 1992. Awake porcine model of intraperitoneal sepsis. Pp. 246-264 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Kerrigan, C. L., R. G. Zelt, J. G Thomsom, and E. Diane. 1986. The pig as an experimental animal in plastic surgery research for the study of skin flaps, myocutaneous flaps and fasciocutaneous flaps. Lab Anita. Sci. 36:396.



Koyama, I., L. R. Pennington, M. M. Swindle, and G. M. Williams. 1986. Pancreatic allotransplantation with Rouxen-Y jejunal diversion in swine: Its technical aspects. Pp. 385-89 in Swine in Biomedical Research, M. E. Tumbleson, ed. New York: Plenum Press.



Kurihara-Bergstrom, T., M. Woodworth, S. FeisuUia, and P. Beall. 1986. Characterization of the Yucatan miniature pig skin and small intestine for pharmaceutical applications. Lab Anim. Sci. 36:396.



Laber-Laird, K., A. C. Smith, M. M. Swindle, and J. Colwell. 1992. Effects of isoflurane anesthesia on glucose clearance in Yucatan minipigs. Lab Anim. Sci. 42(6):579-581.



Lee, K. T., D. N. Kim, and W. A. Thomas. 1986. Atherosclerosis in swine. Pp. 33-48 in Swine in Cardiovascular Research, Vol. 1, H. C. Stanton and H. J. Mersmann, eds. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.



Leman, A. D., B. E. Straw, W. L. Mengeling, S. D'Allaire, and D. J. Taylor. 1992. Diseases of Swine, Seventh Edition. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Mench, J. A., S. J. Mayer, and L. Krulisch, eds. 1992. The Well Being of Agricultural Animals in Biomedical and Agricultural Research. Bethesda, Maryland: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare.



Mitchell, S. E., J. H. Anderson, M. M. Swindle, J. D. Strandberg, and J. Kan. 1994. Atrial septostomy: Stationary angioplasty balloon technique. Experimental work and preliminary clinical applications. Podiatr. Cardiol. 15(1):1-7.



NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.



Panepinto, L. M. 1986. Character and management of miniature swine. Pp. 11-24 in Swine in Cardiovascular Research, Vol. 1, H. C. Stanton and J. H. Mersmann, eds. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Pennington, L.R. 1992. Renal transplantation in swine. Pp. 35-43 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Pritchard, T. J., W. A. Kottun, and R. L. Kirkman. 1986. Technical aspects of small intestinal transplantation in young pigs. Pp. 391-398 in Swine in Biomedical Research, Vol. 1, M. E. Tumbleson, ed. New York: Plenum Press.



Randall, G. C.B. 1986. Chronic implantations of catheters and other surgical techniques in fetal pigs. Pp. 1179-1186 in Swine in Biomedical Research, Vol. 1, M. E. Tumbleson, ed. New York: Plenum Press.



Riebold, T. W., and J. C. Thurmon. 1986. Anesthesia in Swine. Pp. 243-254 in Swine in Biomedical Research, Vol. 1, M. E. Tumbleson, ed. New York: Plenum Press.



Sachs, D. H. 1992. MHC-homozygous miniature swine. Pp. 3-15 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Smith, A. C., F. G. Spinale, and M. M. Swindle. 1990. Cardiac function and morphology of Hanford miniature swine and Yucatan miniature and micro swine. Lab Anim. Sci. 40(1):47-50.



Smith, A. C. W. Ehler, and M. M. Swindle. In press. Anesthesia and analgesia in swine. In Anesthesia and Analgesia in Laboratory Animals. D.H. Kohn, S. K. Wixson, W. J. White, and G. J. Benson, eds. New York: Academic Press.



Stanton, H. C., and Mersmann, H.J. 1986. Swine in Cardiovascular Research, Vol. I and 2. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.



Swindle, M. M., ed. 1992. Swine as Models in Biomedical Research. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Swindle, M. M., and D. L. Bobbie (illustrator). 1983. Basic Surgical Exercises Using Swine. New York: Praeger Publishers.



Swindle, M. M., A. C. Smith, and B. J. S. Hepburn. 1988. Swine as models in experimental surgery. J. Invest. Surg. 1(1):65-79.



Swindle, M. M., R. P. Thompson, B. A. Carabello, A. C. Smith, C. Green, and P. C. Gillette. 1992. Congenital cardiovascular disease. Pp. 176-184 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Tumbleson, M. E., ed. 1986. Swine in Biomedical Research, Vol. 1, New York: Plenum Press.



Weiskopf, R. B., M. A. Holmes, E. I. Eger II, N. Yasuda, I. J. Rampil, B. H. Johnson, A. G. Targ, I. A. Reid, and L. C. Keil. 1992. Use of swine in the study of anesthetics. Pp. 96-117 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



White, C. J., S. R. Ramee, A. K. Banks, D. Wiktor, and H. L. Price. 1992. The Yucatan miniature swine: An atherogenic model to assess the early potency rates of an endovascular stent. Pp. 156-162 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.



Zambraski, E. J., G. D. Thomas, and K. P. O'Hagan. 1992. DOCA-treated Yucatan miniature swine: A neurogenic model of essential hypertension. Pp. 290-301 in Swine as Models in Biomedical Research, M. M. Swindle, ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.

HANDLING

Restraint methods, commonly used in agricultural settings such as "snout snaring" or other aggressive physical types of restraints should be discouraged in biomedical research institutions because of the stress they induce. Swine may be humanely restrained in commercially available restraint slings (Figure 2) or institutions may construct their own (Panepinto, 1986). Swine may be herded into the comer of a pen using a handheld plywood or plastic panel when restraint is necessary in the pen. If restrained manually, they should be held in the same manner as dogs and not held upside down by the rear legs. Physical examinations, rectal temperature checks, and injections may be performed while a pig is distracted by food.



Short-term chemical restraint agents and anesthetics may be used if the procedure requires them. Techniques and agents are reviewed elsewhere (Riebold and Thurmon, 1986; Smith et al., in press; Swindle et al., 1988).



HEALTH CARE



The best method to ensure having healthy research animals is to procure them from a reliable source, which has been evaluated by the institutional veterinarian. The health status of domestic farm breeds is variable depending upon the endemic diseases in the region of the country and the quality of the management and health care program of the farmer. Purchasing pigs at auctions is almost certain to introduce porcine diseases to the research facility. Specific-pathogen free (SPF) status is a specific term in swine management ensuring that the source of animals is free of many infectious and parasitic diseases with a notable exception being mycoplasmosis. While non-SPF sources may still be healthy and suitable for research, the animals should be evaluated by a veterinarian. Regardless of the source of the animals, our experience is that a 3-day stabilization period following shipment is recommended for animals undergoing survival surgical procedures. Depending on the source of the animal, quarantine and conditioning programs may be necessary for animals on long-term projects. If research animals are being maintained for long-term projects, it may be necessary to establish a vaccination program. Potential pathogens to vaccinate for include Bordetella, Pasteurella, erysipelas, Hemophilus, Clostridium, parvovirus, leptospira, Escherichia coli, transmissible gastroenteritis, and rotavirus. Veterinary advice should be sought on which organisms are of particular importance to the research facility. A program to control internal and external parasites should also be established based on a physical examination and an evaluation of fecal samples.



If a facility is raising neonates, a program of care should include clipping the needle teeth and injecting iron dextran to protect against physiologic anemia, which occurs in newborn pigs.



Health programs for miniature swine are the same as for domestic farm breeds, and in-depth discussions of health management programs are available in veterinary textbooks (Leman et al., 1992).

HUSBANDRY

Guidelines for housing laboratory swine have been published in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (Guide) (NRC, 1985) and in the Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching (Ag Guide) (Consortium for Developing a Guide, 1988), which require that swine be housed in facilities comparable to a well-managed farm. Also, the proceedings of a Scientists Center for Animal Welfare conference provide recommendations for husbandry and handling of swine (Mench et al., 1992). Although agricultural animals, including swine, are now covered by the Animal Welfare Act and consequently are regulated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, no written standards are available to date. While the guidelines listed above do not take miniature pigs into consideration, a comparison of husbandry practices for miniature pigs with those of domestic farm breeds has recently been published (Fisher, 1993).



The recommendations in both the Guide and the Ag Guide for housing and grouping swine are confusing and contradictory and neither takes miniature pigs into consideration. The Guide has more stringent requirements for floor space than the Ag Guide and should be used as the standard for biomedical institutions. The Guide requires 6 to 60 square feet per pig (0.56-5.57 sq m/pig) depending upon the body weight and the number of animals housed within the same enclosure. It does not distinguish between a sow with a litter and groupings of more mature animals. The Ag Guide recommends 35 sq ft (3.15 sq m) for a sow with a litter. In our experience, miniature pigs with litters actually require less space than could be calculated from the standards in either document. A variance of this type should be reviewed by the institution's IACUC.



Ambient temperature requirements for swine are not listed in the Guide, but the Ag Guide recommends a temperature range of 50�-77�F (10�-25�C) for adult animals and temperature ranges of 590-90� (15�-32�C) for less mature animals with the higher values being required for neonates. Based on our experience with miniature swine, temperatures should be between 75�-80�F (24�-26�C). Heat lamps or other heat sources should be placed in the comer of the cage to provide extra warmth for neonates, which typically require temperatures of 85�-90�F (30�-32�C). Care must be taken to ensure that temperature measurements are made at the level of the animals because of the differential between the floor and wall thermostats (Fisher, 1993). Care should also be taken to ensure that animals are kept dry while the pens are being cleaned, as wet animals frequently become chilled. Animals housed in agricultural situations can withstand a wide range of temperatures if shelter is available.



Humidity and air changes are not detailed by existing guidelines. We use rooms with 10-15 air changes per hour with 100 percent fresh outside air and a relative humidity of 40-70 percent, which is consistent with general American Association for Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC) facility standards. If lighting is provided by artificial means with light timers, the lighted cycle should be 12-16 hours especially if breeding is performed (Consortium for Developing a Guide, 1988; Fisher, 1993).



Swine are best housed in pens made of chain link or panels with vertical slats or bars. If solid floors are used, they should be deeply bedded with wood shavings to prevent the animals from slipping. The wood shavings also provide environmental enrichment as they are a substance in which the pigs can root. Extra care must be taken when using wood shavings with animals that are being fasted before surgery, as they will eat the bedding. Raised slotted flooring or slatted floors are also acceptable as long as a type with small openings is used to prevent hoof injury (Figure 1). If animals are housed on raised floors, a regular program of hoof trimming will have to be provided for long-term animals (those held for more than 3 months). Dog cages provide good short-term housing for special purposes such as post-operative care, however, either raised floors or non-skid pads need to be placed in the cages.



Facilities that maintain breeding swine need to provide for farrowing and weaning. Domestic farm breeds, but not miniature breeds, require a farrowing crate or pen to prevent them from crushing the piglets. If the piglets are allowed access to heat lamps and bedding for warmth, it is our experience that farrowing crams or even separation panels are unnecessary. Piglets will start to consume feed at approximately 3 weeks, and the starter ration should be provided in an area of the pen not accessible by the sow. Domestic farm breeds have an average gestation period of 114 days, while some of the miniature breeds farrow at shorter times (for example, the Yucatan pig has a gestation period of 111 days). Weaning for both domestic and miniature breeds occurs at 3 to 6 weeks.



Swine are social animals and should be provided with the opportunity to interact with other members of their species and with humans. If housing by compatible groups is not possible because of protocol restrictions or cage size, then animals should be able to see each other and preferably touch noses through the walls of the pens. Incompatible animals will fight and dominant animals may severely injure others in the pen especially at feeding time. If animals are housed without bedding, then toys such as basketballs or large balls made of impervious materials can be provided to satisfy the rooting behavior. Swine can be trained and made docile by positive interactions with humans such as rubbing or scratching the head and back. Animals may also be trained with food rewards of vegetables or fruit. Stressful housing situations in combination with other factors, including diet and environmental fluctuations, may result in gastric ulceration (Panepinto, 1986; Swindle et al., 1988).



In biomedical research institutions, standard formulations of commercial agricultural feed should be avoided. Commercial farm rations are designed to provide rapid growth and contain antibiotics and other growth promoters unless special formulations are requested. Several commercial manufacturers now provide diets for miniature pigs which are higher in fiber and provide for less rapid growth without compromising nutritional requirements. Starter, maintenance, and lactation diets are available and a calculated amount may be fed either once or twice a day. Pigs will readily consume medications mixed in normal rations or camouflaged with either canned dog food or chocolate syrup. Pigs will form a dunging pattern and will usually defecate opposite from where their food is provided depending upon the cage configuration. More information on nutrient requirements for swine can be found in NRC (1988).



Water is best provided by an automated watering system as water deprivation can easily occur because pigs will refuse to drink from soiled water containers and quickly overturn floor pans and water bowls. Care must be taken not to deprive them of water for long periods of time, even preoperatively, because they are susceptible to "salt poisoning.'' This condition results in clinical neurologic deficits secondary to water deprivation or over-administration of sodium salts in as little as 12 hours (Fisher, 1993).

BIOMEDICAL MODELS

Swine are commonly used in cardiovascular research because swine and humans share important anatomic and physiologic characteristics. Their hearts are approximately the same size, and coronary blood flow, hemodynamic and myocardial contractility, development of atherosclerosis are analogous (Stanton and Mersmann, 1986). Consequently, swine are used to study congenital heart disease (Gillette et al., 1991; Mitchell et al., 1994; Swindle et al., 1992), myocardial infarction (Bloor et al., 1992), hemodynamics and shock (Hannon, 1992; Hoban et al., 1992), development of interventional radiology devices including balloon catheters and intravascular stents (Gal and Isner, 1992; White et al., 1992), hypertension (Zambraski et al., 1992), cardiopulmonary bypass and anesthesia (Cameron et al., 1992; Weiskopf et al., 1992), heart failure (Hendrick et al., 1990), and atherosclerosis (Lee et al., 1986).



Swine are also used extensively for nutritional studies because their digestive physiology is similar to humans. Because they are omnivores, swine will readily consume a variety of nutritional supplements and test substances (Swindle et al., 1988). They have also been used for many other studies related to nutrition, including total parenteral nutrition, lipid metabolism, diabetes, alcoholism, gastric ulceration, and splanchnic blood flow (Cohen et al., 1992; Laber-Laird et al., 1992; Tumbleson, 1986).



Organ transplantation studies have been performed using the swine heart (Hall et al., 1986), liver (Flye, 1992), kidney (Pennington, 1992), pancreas (Koyama et al., 1986), and intestine (Pritchard et al., 1986). Many of these organ transplantation studies have been related to immunologic aspects of transplants, including the development of transgenic animals that would be immunologically accepted by humans (Sachs, 1992).



Other studies have involved wound healing and plastic and reconstructive surgery (Kerrigan et al., 1986), fetal surgery (Randall, 1986), and pharmacology and toxicology (Kurihara-Bergstrom et al., 1986; Feletou and Teisseire, 1992). Reproductive physiology and endocrine functions have also been studied (Tumbleson, 1986).



Swine are used extensively in surgical training classes for health care practitioners. Initially they were used to train medical students and residents in surgical skills ( and Bobbie, 1983) but are now used extensively to train graduate physicians, nurses, and technical staff' in endoscopic and stapling surgical techniques, laser surgery, and microsurgery.



When comparing studies using swine, the differences in physiology, genotype, and phenotype and in maturity at a given body weight need to be considered, not only among breeds, but among breeds from different producers. It is best to use the same breed and age, however, this is not always possible. In order to make hemodynamic comparisons, values should be indexed to body weight in kilograms or body surface area. Because of varying growth rates among breeds, animals may differ in age and maturity at the same weight. This factor should also be considered when comparing data (Smith et al., 1990; Smith et al., in press). Genotype matching has become increasingly important in achieving reproducibility among animals.



Anesthesia, analgesia, and surgical care are important subjects and have received much attention in the literature. Reviews on these important subjects are available (Riebold and Thurmon, 1986; Smith et al., in press; Swindle et al., 1988).

Online Issues

Farm Animals in Biomedical Research - Part One



Swine in Biomedical Research: Management and Models

M. Michael Swindle, Alison C. Smith, Kathy Laber-Laird, and Laurel Dungan M. Michael Swindle, D.V.M., is Professor and Chairman, Alison C. Smith, D.V.M., is an Assistant Professor, Kathy Laber-Laird, D.V.M., M.S., is an Assistant Professor, and Laurel Dungan, D.V.M., is a resident at the Department of Comparative Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina.



INTRODUCTION



For the last 2 decades, swine have been used with increasing frequency in biomedical research as replacements for dogs and primates, as well as models of human disease based upon their own unique anatomy and physiology (Stanton and Mersmann, 1986; Swindle, 1992; Tumbleson, 1986).



All of the domestic farm breeds and miniature breeds available in the United States are Sus scrofa domestica. Farm breeds have the disadvantage of a rapid growth rate, increasing from an average weight of 1 kg at birth to 100 kg at 4 months of age. Mature breeding stock typically reach weights of greater than 200 kg. Consequently, these animals are best used for non-survival or short-term projects of less than 3 weeks in duration.



Miniature pigs are more commonly used for long-term projects because of their smaller size and growth rate. Depending on the breed, miniature pigs grow from a birth weight of 0.5 kg to 12-45 kg. at 4 months of age. Breeding stock reach weights of 45-100 kg. Commercially available miniature pigs also tend to be more tractable than domestic breeds raised in an agricultural setting. The most commonly used laboratory breeds of miniature pigs are Yucatan miniature, Yucatan Micropig�, Hanford, Sinclair (Hormel), Pitman-Moore, and Goettingen (Panepinto, 1986).



The purpose of this article is to review the use of swine in biomedical research and to provide general information on the husbandry and management of the various breeds in a laboratory setting. If an institution seeks to raise swine in large numbers, it would be well advised to consult an agricultural scientist involved in swine production programs for advice on facility design and management.

Historically

Historically, brucellosis from Brucella suis infection occurred among workers in swine slaughterhouses. In 1972, the U.S. Department of Agriculture National Brucellosis Eradication Program was expanded to cover swine herds. Subsequent elimination of brucellosis in commercial swine resulted in a decrease in B. suis-associated illness in humans. Currently, swine-associated brucellosis in humans in the United States is predominantly associated with exposure to infected feral swine (i.e., wild boar or wild hogs). * In May and July 2008, CDC was contacted by the state health ...

World AIDS Day

World AIDS Day started on 1st December 1988. This day is important in reminding people that HIV has not gone away, and that there are many things still to be done. World AIDS Day is about raising money, increasing awareness, fighting prejudice and improving education. 1st December 2008 - marks the 20th anniversary of World AIDS Day. Although we have come a long ways since 1988, there is still much more to be done. So, this year, let us all be the leaders and lead in initiating the essential awareness required to save the world from AIDS!

Virus Information

Signs and symptoms

In swine
In pigs influenza infection produces fever, lethargy, sneezing, coughing, difficulty breathing and decreased appetite.[11] In some cases the infection can cause abortion. Although mortality is usually low (around 1-4%),[2] the virus can produce weight loss and poor growth, causing economic loss to farmers.[11] Infected pigs can lose up to 12 pounds of body weight over a 3 to 4 week period.[11]

In humans

Main symptoms of swine flu in humans[68]
Direct transmission of a swine flu virus from pigs to humans is occasionally possible (called zoonotic swine flu). In all, 50 cases are known to have occurred since the first report in medical literature in 1958, which have resulted in a total of six deaths.[69] Of these six people, one was pregnant, one had leukemia, one had Hodgkin disease and two were known to be previously healthy.[69] Despite these apparently low numbers of infections, the true rate of infection may be higher, since most cases only cause a very mild disease, and will probably never be reported or diagnosed.[69]

Swine Flu Transmission

Transmission between pigs
Influenza is quite common in pigs, with about half of breeding pigs having been exposed to the virus in the US.[54] Antibodies to the virus are also common in pigs in other countries.[54]
The main route of transmission is through direct contact between infected and uninfected animals.[11] These close contacts are particularly common during animal transport. Intensive farming may also increase the risk of transmission, as the pigs are raised in very close proximity to each other.[55][56] The direct transfer of the virus probably occurs either by pigs touching noses, or through dried mucus. Airborne transmission through the aerosols produced by pigs coughing or sneezing are also an important means of infection.[11] The virus usually spreads quickly through a herd, infecting all the pigs within just a few days.[2] Transmission may also occur through wild animals, such as wild boar, which can spread the disease between farms.[57]

Transmission to humans
People who work with poultry and swine, especially people with intense exposures, are at increased risk of zoonotic infection with influenza virus endemic in these animals, and constitute a population of human hosts in which zoonosis and reassortment can co-occur.[58] Vaccination of these workers against influenza and surveillance for new influenza strains among this population may therefore be an important public health measure.[59] Transmission of influenza from swine to humans who work with swine was documented in a small surveillance study performed in 2004 at the University of Iowa.[60] This study among others forms the basis of a recommendation that people whose jobs involve handling poultry and swine be the focus of increased public health surveillance.[58] Other professions at particular risk of infection are veterinarians and meat processing workers, although the risk of infection for both of these groups is lower than that of farm workers.[61]

Interaction with avian H5N1 in pigs
Pigs are unusual as they can be infected with influenza strains that usually infect three different species: pigs, birds and humans.[62] This makes pigs a host where influenza viruses might exchange genes, producing new and dangerous strains.[62] Avian influenza virus H3N2 is endemic in pigs in China and has been detected in pigs in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains.[63] H3N2 evolved from H2N2 by antigenic shift.[64] In August 2004, researchers in China found H5N1 in pigs.[65]

Main symptoms of swine flu in swine.[2]
These H5N1 infections may be quite common: in a survey of 10 apparently healthy pigs housed near poultry farms in West Java, where avian flu had broken out, five of the pig samples contained the H5N1 virus. The Indonesian government has since found similar results in the same region. Additional tests of 150 pigs outside the area were negative.[66][67]

Philippine outbreak in swine

Please help improve this article by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (April 2009)
On August 20, 2007 Department of Agriculture officers investigated the outbreak (epizootic) of swine flu in Nueva Ecija and Central Luzon, Philippines. The mortality rate is less than 10% for swine flu, unless there are complications like hog cholera. On July 27, 2007, the Philippine National Meat Inspection Service (NMIS) raised a hog cholera "red alert" warning over Metro Manila and 5 regions of Luzon after the disease spread to backyard pig farms in Bulacan and Pampanga, even if these tested negative for the swine flu virus.[44][45]

2009 outbreak in humans
Main article: 2009 flu pandemic
The H1N1 viral strain implicated in the 2009 flu pandemic among humans often is called "swine flu" because initial testing showed many of the genes in the virus were similar to influenza viruses normally occurring in North American swine.[46] But further research has shown that the outbreak is due to a new strain of H1N1 not previously reported in pigs.
In late April, Margaret Chan, the World Health Organization's director-general, declared a "public health emergency of international concern" under the rules of the WHO's new International Health Regulations when the first cases of the H1N1 virus were reported in the United States.[47] [48] Following the outbreak, on May 2, 2009, it was reported in pigs at a farm in Alberta, Canada, with a link to the outbreak in Mexico. The pigs are suspected to have caught this new strain of virus from a farm worker who recently returned from Mexico, then showed symptoms of an influenza-like illness.[49] These are probable cases, pending confirmation by laboratory testing.
The new strain was initially described as an apparent reassortment of at least four strains of influenza A virus subtype H1N1, including one strain endemic in humans, one endemic in birds, and two endemic in swine.[46] Subsequent analysis suggested it was a reassortment of just two strains, both found in swine.[50] Although initial reports identified the new strain as swine influenza (i.e., a zoonosis originating in swine), its origin is unknown. Several countries took precautionary measures to reduce the chances for a global pandemic of the disease.[51] The 2009 swine flu has been compared to other similar types of influenza virus in terms of mortality: "in the US it appears that for every 1000 people who get infected, about 40 people need admission to hospital and about one person dies".[52]. There are fears that swine flu will become a major global pandemic in the winter months, with many countries planning major vaccination campaigns. [53]

History

Swine influenza was first proposed to be a disease related to human influenza during the 1918 flu pandemic, when pigs became sick at the same time as humans.[16] The first identification of an influenza virus as a cause of disease in pigs occurred about ten years later, in 1930.[17] For the following 60 years, swine influenza strains were almost exclusively H1N1. Then, between 1997 and 2002, new strains of three different subtypes and five different genotypes emerged as causes of influenza among pigs in North America. In 1997-1998, H3N2 strains emerged. These strains, which include genes derived by reassortment from human, swine and avian viruses, have become a major cause of swine influenza in North America. Reassortment between H1N1 and H3N2 produced H1N2. In 1999 in Canada, a strain of H4N6 crossed the species barrier from birds to pigs, but was contained on a single farm.[17]
The H1N1 form of swine flu is one of the descendants of the strain that caused the 1918 flu pandemic.[18][19] As well as persisting in pigs, the descendants of the 1918 virus have also circulated in humans through the 20th century, contributing to the normal seasonal epidemics of influenza.[19] However, direct transmission from pigs to humans is rare, with only 12 cases in the U.S. since 2005.[20] Nevertheless, the retention of influenza strains in pigs after these strains have disappeared from the human population might make pigs a reservoir where influenza viruses could persist, later emerging to reinfect humans once human immunity to these strains has waned.[21]
Swine flu has been reported numerous times as a zoonosis in humans, usually with limited distribution, rarely with a widespread distribution. Outbreaks in swine are common and cause significant economic losses in industry, primarily by causing stunting and extended time to market. For example, this disease costs the British meat industry about £65 million every year.[22]

1918 pandemic in humans
The 1918 flu pandemic in humans was associated with H1N1 and influenza appearing in pigs;[19] this may reflect a zoonosis either from swine to humans, or from humans to swine. Although it is not certain in which direction the virus was transferred, some evidence suggests that, in this case, pigs caught the disease from humans.[16] For instance, swine influenza was only noted as a new disease of pigs in 1918, after the first large outbreaks of influenza amongst people.[16] Although a recent phylogenetic analysis of more recent strains of influenza in humans, birds, and swine suggests that the 1918 outbreak in humans followed a reassortment event within a mammal,[23] the exact origin of the 1918 strain remains elusive.[24] It is estimated that anywhere from 50 to 100 million people were killed worldwide.[19][25]

1976 U.S. outbreak
Main article: 1976 swine flu outbreak
On February 5, 1976, in the United States an army recruit at Fort Dix said he felt tired and weak. He died the next day and four of his fellow soldiers were later hospitalized. Two weeks after his death, health officials announced that the cause of death was a new strain of swine flu. The strain, a variant of H1N1, is known as A/New Jersey/1976 (H1N1). It was detected only from January 19 to February 9 and did not spread beyond Fort Dix.[26]

President Ford receives swine flu vaccination
This new strain appeared to be closely related to the strain involved in the 1918 flu pandemic. Moreover, the ensuing increased surveillance uncovered another strain in circulation in the U.S.: A/Victoria/75 (H3N2) spread simultaneously, also caused illness, and persisted until March.[26] Alarmed public-health officials decided action must be taken to head off another major pandemic, and urged President Gerald Ford that every person in the U.S. be vaccinated for the disease.[27]
The vaccination program was plagued by delays and public relations problems.[28] On October 1, 1976, the immunization program began. That same day, three senior citizens died soon after receiving their swine flu shots and there was a media outcry linking the deaths to the immunizations, despite the lack of positive proof. According to science writer Patrick Di Justo, however, by the time the truth was known—that the deaths were not proven to be related to the vaccine—it was too late. "The government had long feared mass panic about swine flu—now they feared mass panic about the swine flu vaccinations." This became a strong setback to the program.[29]
There were reports of Guillain-Barré syndrome, a paralyzing neuromuscular disorder, affecting some people who had received swine flu immunizations. This syndrome is a rare side-effect of modern influenza vaccines, with an incidence of about one case per million vaccinations.[30] As a result, Di Justo writes that "the public refused to trust a government-operated health program that killed old people and crippled young people." In total, 48,161,019 Americans, or just over 22% of the population, had been immunized by the time the National Influenza Immunization Program (NIIP) was effectively halted on December 16, 1976.[31] [32]
Overall, there were 1098 cases of Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) recorded nationwide by CDC surveillance, 532 of which were linked to the NIIP vaccination, resulting in death from severe pulmonary complications for 25 people, which, according to Dr. P. Haber, were probably caused by an immunopathological reaction to the 1976 vaccine. Other influenza vaccines have not been linked to GBS, though caution is advised for certain individuals, particularly those with a history of GBS. [33] [34][35] Still, as observed by a participant in the immunization program, the vaccine killed more Americans than the disease did.[36]

1988 zoonosis
In September 1988, a swine flu virus killed one woman and infected others. 32-year old Barbara Ann Wieners was eight months pregnant when she and her husband, Ed, became ill after visiting the hog barn at a county fair in Walworth County, Wisconsin. Barbara died eight days later, after developing pneumonia.[37] The only pathogen identified was an H1N1 strain of swine influenza virus.[38] Doctors were able to induce labor and deliver a healthy daughter before she died. Her husband recovered from his symptoms.
Influenza-like illness (ILI) was reportedly widespread among the pigs exhibited at the fair. 76% of 25 swine exhibitors aged 9 to 19 tested positive for antibody to SIV, but no serious illnesses were detected among this group. Additional studies suggested between one and three health care personnel who had contact with the patient developed mild influenza-like illnesses with antibody evidence of swine flu infection. However, there was no community outbreak.[39][40]

1998 US outbreak in swine
In 1998, swine flu was found in pigs in four U.S. states. Within a year, it had spread through pig populations across the United States. Scientists found that this virus had originated in pigs as a recombinant form of flu strains from birds and humans. This outbreak confirmed that pigs can serve as a crucible where novel influenza viruses emerge as a result of the reassortment of genes from different strains.[41][42][43]

Classification

Of the three genera of influenza viruses that cause human flu, two also cause influenza in pigs, with influenza A being common in pigs and influenza C being rare.[3] Influenza B has not been reported in pigs. Within influenza A and influenza C, the strains found in pigs and humans are largely distinct, although due to reassortment there have been transfers of genes among strains crossing swine, avian, and human species boundaries.

Influenza C
Influenza C viruses infect both humans and pigs, but do not infect birds.[4] Transmission between pigs and humans have occurred in the past.[5] For example, influenza C caused small outbreaks of a mild form of influenza amongst children in Japan[6] and California.[6] Due to its limited host range and the lack of genetic diversity in influenza C, this form of influenza does not cause pandemics in humans.[7]

Influenza A
Swine influenza is known to be caused by influenza A subtypes H1N1,[8] H1N2,[8] H2N3,[9] H3N1,[10] and H3N2.[8] In pigs, three influenza A virus subtypes (H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2) are the most common strains worldwide.[11] In the United States, the H1N1 subtype was exclusively prevalent among swine populations before 1998; however, since late August 1998, H3N2 subtypes have been isolated from pigs. As of 2004, H3N2 virus isolates in US swine and turkey stocks were triple reassortants, containing genes from human (HA, NA, and PB1), swine (NS, NP, and M), and avian (PB2 and PA) lineages.[12]

Surveillance
Although there is no formal national surveillance system in the United States to determine what viruses are circulating in pigs,[13] there is an informal surveillance network in the United States that is part of a world surveillance network.
Veterinary medical pathologist, Tracey McNamara, set up a national disease surveillance system in zoos because the zoos do active disease surveillance and many of the exotic animals housed there have broad susceptibilities. Many species fall below the radar of any federal agencies (including dogs, cats, pet prairie dogs, zoo animals, and urban wildlife), even though they may be important in the early detection of human disease outbreaks.[14] [15]

Swine influenza

Influenza (flu)

2009 flu pandemic (Swine flu)
Virus
Avian influenza
Swine influenza
Flu season
Research
Vaccine
Treatment
A/H5N1 subtype
A/H1N1 subtype
Pandemic

Swine influenza is endemic in pigs

Electron microscope image of the reassorted H1N1 influenza virus photographed at the CDC Influenza Laboratory. The viruses are 80–120 nanometres in diameter.[1]
Swine influenza (also called swine flu, hog flu, and pig flu) is an infection by any one of several types of swine influenza virus. Swine influenza virus (SIV) is any strain of the influenza family of viruses that is endemic in pigs.[2] As of 2009, the known SIV strains include influenza C and the subtypes of influenza A known as H1N1, H1N2, H3N1, H3N2, and H2N3.
Swine influenza virus is common throughout pig populations worldwide. Transmission of the virus from pigs to humans is not common and does not always lead to human influenza, often resulting only in the production of antibodies in the blood. If transmission does cause human influenza, it is called zoonotic swine flu. People with regular exposure to pigs are at increased risk of swine flu infection. The meat of an infected animal poses no risk of infection when properly cooked.
During the mid-20th century, identification of influenza subtypes became possible, allowing accurate diagnosis of transmission to humans. Since then, only 50 such transmissions have been confirmed. These strains of swine flu rarely pass from human to human. Symptoms of zoonotic swine flu in humans are similar to those of influenza and of influenza-like illness in general, namely chills, fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, weakness and general discomfort.